The sense of place and the ability to navigate it are primary brain functions.1,2 We depend on these spatial functions to find our way around our environment.1,2 Edward Tolman (1886–1959), an American psychologist, proposed that animals could experience relationships between places and events and that the exploration of the environment gradually resulted in the formation of a cognitive map that enabled animals (and humans) to navigate through their environment.3 Two broad navigational strategies have been identified: egocentric and allocentric.1 Egocentric (self-centered) navigation proceeds from the viewpoint of the navigator and is typically used when navigating a familiar route.1,2 Allocentric (map-based) navigation depends on the navigator’s perception of landmark positions relative to other landmarks and is typically used when navigating a novel environment.2 Egocentric and allocentric navigation usually work together but can also be dissociated from each other.2 The hippocampus and medial temporal lobe is more strongly associated with allocentric navigation, whereas the precuneus and caudate are more important for egocentric navigation.2,4 Spatial navigation in general, however, is a complex multimodal process that involves a large network of cortical and subcortical brain regions—including the medial temporal lobe, entorhinal cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, retrosplenial cortex, parietal lobe, and the prefrontal cortex.2,4,5
